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Additional CHAPTER 16 Exercises |
16.5 Here are the short descriptive titles the text uses to
identify elements of Hill’s causal inference framework:
(1) = Strength ������������������������� (2) = Consistency ������������������� (3) = Specificity ���������������������
(4) = Temporality ������������������� (5) = Biological gradient �������� (6) = Plausibility ��������
(7) = Coherence ��������������������� (8) = Experiment��������������������� (9) = Analogy
Use these codes to label each of these descriptions
below.
a. This
element of Hill's framework suggests that the exposure precedes the disease by
a reasonable amount of time.
b. The risk
of having a child with spina bifida decreases
progressively with higher-and-higher levels of folic acid supplementation
administered during the first trimester of pregnancy. To which of Hill's
elements does this speak?
c. The
relative risk of lung cancer in smokers is about 15. Thus, the element of
____________ has been met.
d. This element
of Hill's framework suggests that there are similarities in some respect to
otherwise different phenomena.
e. Studies
on oral contraceptives and breast cancer have in different populations have
failed to provide similar results and conclusions. Therefore, Hill's element of
__________ has NOT been met.
f. Diets
high in antioxidants may protect against cancer because antioxidants mitigate
the oxidative effects of cellular aging and associated chromosomal damage.
Which of Hill's elements has been applied?
g. This
element of Hill's framework suggests that evidence from laboratory studies and
trials provide support for the theory.
h. This
element of Hill's framework suggests that the exposure leads to only one
disease and the disease has no other known causes.
i.
This element of Hill's framework suggests that all available evidence sticks
together as a whole.
16.6 In the early
1980s, before AIDS was known to have
a viral cause, some scientists noticed that some of the groups identified to be
at at high risk of AIDS at the time (such as
homosexuals and Haitians) were also at high risk of Hepatitis B. Hepatitis B at
the time had a known viral cause, and was known to be transmitted sexually This
fact emboldened the scientists’ to hypothesize that AIDS also had a viral
cause. Which of Hills elements forms the basis of this inference?
16.7. John Snow completed many different investigations of study water source and cholera. All these investigations came to the same conclusion: people who drank from fecal contaminated water sources were more likely to develop cholera. Snow used this information to support his water borne theory of disease transmission. Which element of Hill’s framework fits the fact that all such studies came to similar conclusion?
(a)
Strength ��������������� (b) Consistency ��������� (c)
Specificity ������������ (d) Temporality
16.8 Which element from Hill’s causal inference framework is illustrated by the following example?� Smokers have an elevated risk of a disease, and smokers who smoke two packs a day have a much higher risk than smokers who smoke one pack a day.
(a)
Strength ��������������� (b) Specificity ����������������������� (c)
Temporality����������� (d) Biologic
gradient
16.9 A food borne
outbreak of Salmonellosis occurred in
(a) People who experienced more severe symptoms consumed more barbeque chicken.
(b) Cases exhibited symptom 9 to 111 hours after eating at the picnic.
(c) The cases had cramps, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, chills, and fever, which are typical signs of Salmonellosis.
(d) Laboratory testing of stool samples from affected individuals isolated the salmonella bacteria.
16.10 Large RRs provide firmer evidence than small RRs. Which element is this?
(a)
Strength ��� (b) Consistency���������� (c)
Plausibility ����������������������� (d) Coherence
16.11 Evidence “sticks together” as a whole. Which element?
(a)
Strength ��� (b) Consistency���������� (c)
Plausibility ����������������������� (d) Coherence
16.12 Association is consistent with established biological fact. Which element is this?
(a) Strength ��������������� (b) Consistency ��������� (c) Plausibility ����������������������� (d) Coherence